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Bangladesh is an impossible country. It is dominated by the delta of two of the largest rivers in Asia. The web of watercourses that flow through the country, invariably swell and burst their banks during the monsoon. The vibrant green paddy and golden jute fields are engulfed by water. This becomes a silver plateau reflecting tumultuous clouds, peppered with the spherical yellow flowers of the Kadamba tree in bloom.
Once part of India as East Bengal, then part of Pakistan as East Pakistan, today Bangladesh stands by itself. “Bangladesh”: land of the Bengalis. One hundred and seventy million of them, living in a space the size of Iowa.
And yet, for all the challenges and constraints, Bangladesh can and should be seen as a modern success story. Despite its violent birth and the tumultuous politics of Bangladesh, it has managed to stamp out the religious extremism threatening its secularism. Since 2021, Bangladesh has enjoyed a per capita income higher than both India and Pakistan. Major progress has been made in closing the gender gap in school enrolments and girls currently outnumber boys’ enrolments.  It has an industrious and passionate young generation with much to offer. The story of Bangladesh is brighter than you think.
Bengal was a culturally vibrant and resource-rich region under both Mughal and British rule. Split once during partition, it was split again when Bangladesh broke away from Pakistan. Â Since then, against the odds, it has been a remarkable economic success story.
Bengal was the richest province of Mughal India (1526-1761). It was where the British East India Company settled in the 1600s. Calcutta, built upon three Bengali villages, was the capital of British India until 1911. Savage communal violence forced the partition of Bengal when the British left in 1947. West Bengal and Calcutta went to India. East Bengal and Dhaka became East Pakistan.
In addition to the 1,800 kilometres of India that separated them, Pakistan’s two wings were ethnically and culturally distinct. Many East Pakistani Bengalis identified more with Hindu Bengalis than Punjabi Muslims, their compatriots in West Pakistan. The wealthier West exploited the East, and refused to allow Bengali as a state language. The Bangladesh Liberation War erupted in 1971 and through this crucible emerged the independent nation of Bangladesh.
In 1972, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, “father of the nation”, proclaimed:
“Together we will build a new and prosperous Bangladesh. The people of Bangladesh will rejoice, live life in joy and breathe freely in the open air.”
The war took a heavy toll. Bangladesh was a devastated country. The economy was shattered. It was at this time that Henry Kissinger described Bangladesh as “a bottomless basket” seeking international aid.
The unfair label has stuck. Bangladesh is a young country with a rich heritage. There is much more to it than poverty and an unforgiving climate. Although the work of building a prosperous and stable Bangladesh continues, there is much for the Bangladeshi people to celebrate already. And for a curious traveller, there is much here that will delight …
Bangladesh is dominated by the rivers that run through it. Tea fields have been planted over the rolling hills of Sylhet. The Chittagong Hill Tracts are also geographically distinct from the rest of the country.
Bangladesh is bordered by India to the west, north and east. To the southeast, it shares a border with Myanmar. The southern part of Bangladesh opens into the Bay of Bengal.
Bangladesh’s nature is largely riverine. Bangladesh constitutes the eastern two-thirds of the deltaic plain of the Padma (Ganges / Ganga) and Jamuna (Brahmaputra) rivers. These rivers make up the Bangladesh delta, with an elevation of generally less than nine metres above sea level. Bangladesh rivers are subject to constant and sometimes rapid changes of course. Consequently, no description of Bangladesh’s topography retains its absolute accuracy for long.
In the northeast (Sylhet) and southeast (Chittagong Hills) the alluvial plains give way to ridges. With its many hillocks and forests, the Chittagong region is quite different from other parts of the country. The coastal plain extends southward from the Feni River to the town of Cox’s Bazar. The region has a number of offshore islands and one coral reef, St Martin’s.
Bangladesh possesses a luxuriant vegetation, with villages bursting with mango, jackfruit, bamboo and coconut. Sylhet and Chittagong have low hills covered with jungles of bamboo and rattan. The central zone north of Dhaka contains mainly lakes. Northwest of the Jamuna and to the southwest of the Padma are flat plains of cultivated plants and orchards. The southern zone along the Bay of Bengal contains the vast wetlands of the Sundarbans, with their distinctive mangrove forests.
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Bangladesh’s plant and animal life is vibrant but all cedes the spotlight to the Bangladesh national animal: the Bengal tiger.
However the elusive king of the jungle is difficult to see. The question of how many tigers in Bangladesh has become acute, as numbers have plummeted since the country gained independence. However, in the last decade, dedicated efforts spearheaded by the Bangladesh government and various stakeholders have yielded encouraging results. Travellers asking where can I see Bengal tigers in Bangladesh, are best off travelling down to the Sundarbans. The mangrove forests at the south of the country is the thickest and most unspoiled wildlife habitat of Bangladesh. Tiger numbers are slowly increasing there.
The Bengal tiger is not the only large carnivore in Bangladesh. In the tea gardens of Sylhet and around the gullies of the Chittagong Hill Tracts common leopards can be found. Less common but sighted on occasion is the rare clouded leopard and the leopard cat. The latter is a viscous animal about the same size as the domesticated cat but with longer legs. Wild elephants, are found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and in the northeastern Sylhet region. Small muntjac are common throughout the country, as are the large sambar deer. The medium-sized spotted deer can now only be found in the Sundarbans.
Bangladesh is inhabited by hundreds of species of birds, including various game birds, parakeets and cuckoos. Among the eagles, the crested serpent eagle and the ring-tailed fishing eagle are the most common. Grumbling, growling Indian myna can be found throughout the country. As can the common house crow, detested by many people of Bangladesh who regard them as a bad omen.
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Bangladesh is a tropical country with a typical monsoon climate characterized by rain-bearing winds, moderately warm temperatures and high humidity. Bangladesh experiences a tropical climate, with three distinct seasons: a hot, humid summer from March to June; a rainy monsoon season from June to October; and a cool, dry winter from November to February.
Climate change poses severe risks and challenges for Bangladesh. The country is highly vulnerable to the impacts of global warming due to its low-lying topography, high population density and reliance on agriculture. One of the most significant threats is the rising sea levels, which can lead to increased coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion and displacement of communities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has identified Bangladesh as one of the most susceptible countries to sea-level rise, potentially affecting millions of people living in coastal areas.
Additionally, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as cyclones and floods, are expected to increase due to climate change. The monsoon season is becoming more erratic, with changes in the timing and intensity of rainfall, leading to prolonged droughts or excessive flooding. This unpredictability hampers agricultural productivity and poses a significant risk to food security.
Over 90 per cent of Bangladesh’s population is Muslim. The proportion of Hindus hovers around 7 per cent. Just how Islamic Bangladesh religion should be has been a point of contention in the country’s politics.
When part of undivided Pakistan, the Bengalis of East Pakistan never saw themselves as strictly religious as their Muslims brothers in West Pakistan. During the 1971 Liberation War between West and East Pakistan, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman described the non-Muslims of East Pakistan as “our sacred trust”. Targeted by the West Pakistanis, protection of Bangladesh’s Hindu population was regarded as a point of pride.
After Bangladesh won independence from Pakistan in 1971, it was declared a secular country. In 1988, military dictator Hussain Muhammad Ershad declared Islam the state religion. Former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina (first elected in 1996) re-introduced secularism as the political standard in the country in 2011, but let Islam remain the state religion.
In 2016, there was a string of attacks on secular writers, bloggers and members of religious minorities. In July that year, this wave of Islamism culminated in the worst ever Islamist attack in Bangladesh, at the Holey Artisan cafe in the upmarket Gulshan district of Dhaka. Armed with assault rifles and machetes, young Islamists opened fire and took diners hostage at gunpoint, before ultimately being neutralised by the Bangladeshi armed forces.
Sheikh Hasina said in a televised address at the time: “What kind of Muslims are these people? They don’t have any religion.”
The Holey Artisan café attack prompted massive anti-terror operations across the country. At least 80 suspected militants were killed. Although she was criticised for her tactics – enforced disappearances, extra-judicial killings – former PM Sheikh Hasina successfully managed to contain Islamic militancy. There have been no such attacks since.
Most people in Bangladesh are ethnic Bengalis. There are Bihari communities in the major cities of the country. Tribal groups inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
The vast majority of the population of Bangladesh is Bengali – a term describing both an ethnic and linguistic group. The Bengali people are historically of diverse origin, having emerged from the confluence of various communities that entered the region over the course of many centuries.
Other Bangladesh ethnic groups that are non-Bengalis constitute only a tiny fraction of the population. Most of these people inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast, the most sparsely settled area of the country. Some of the major ethnic groups in Bangladesh found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts are related to the peoples of Myanmar. Many follow Buddhism, although both Hinduism and Christianity also have a significant following. Of the dozen or so ethnolinguistic groups of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the largest are the Chakma, the Marma, the Tripura and the Mro. The Khomoi, the Kuki and the Mizo (formerly called Lushai) are among the smaller groups.
The official Bangladesh language is Bengali (Bangla). It is the mother tongue of almost the entire population of Bangladesh. However there are other languages in Bangladesh. The indigenous minority groups have their own languages and dialects, some of which are Tibeto-Burman languages. English is spoken in urban centres and among educated groups. These can all be considered languages of Bangladesh.
The refusal by the authorities in West Pakistan to include Bengali as one of undivided Pakistan’s state languages, led to the Language Movement of the 1940s and 50s. This was a widespread and emotive political movement, that can be seen as a precursor to the Liberation War of 1971, and the eventual division of Pakistan. Today, Bengali is Bangladesh’s official language.
Bangladesh people and society remain quite conservative. While most marriages are arranged by parents or relatives, a growing number of educated individuals are choosing their own partners. Divorce is allowed under Muslim law, which also permits limited polygyny, though it is not common. Hindus can seek a separation through a court of law.
The primary festivals in Bangladesh are religious, with the two most significant being Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the Muslim fasting month. Eid al-Adha, the festival of sacrifice, occurs on the 10th day of the last month of the Islamic calendar.
Bangladeshis’ staple diet traditionally includes rice, pulses and fish. However, rice shortages since World War II have led to the acceptance of wheat and wheat products as alternatives. Meat, such as goat and beef, is also consumed, particularly in urban areas. At weddings and other festive events, seasoned rice (pilau) is often served with highly spiced meat dishes and curries. Bangladesh is renowned for its wide variety of milk-based sweets.
In rural areas and among the less affluent in urban regions, men typically wear a short vest and lungi / longi. This is a length of cloth wrapped around the lower half of the body. More affluent men prefer light cotton trousers known as pyjamas and a collarless knee-length shirt called a panjabi. For formal occasions, a modified Western suit is worn. Traditional attire for weddings includes the sherwani and churidar, a calf-length tunic with close-fitting trousers. Women commonly wear saris. However younger women prefer the shalwar kamiz, a combination of a calf-length shirt and baggy trousers gathered at the ankles.
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Traditional norms and patriarchal values significantly influence the roles and status of men and women in society. Historically, men have dominated public spheres such as politics, business, and decision-making processes. Women, on the other hand, have been primarily confined to domestic roles.
However, Bangladesh has made remarkable progress in the last 20 years in improving the lives of women and girls. The maternal mortality rate has decreased by more than two-thirds since 2000 and continues to fall. The government and various non-governmental organizations have implemented policies and programmes aimed at promoting gender equality and empowering women. Major progress has been made in closing the gender gap in school enrolments at both primary and secondary levels. Girls currently outnumber boys’ enrolments. Many women are now members of the local government councils that have important responsibilities for rural and urban development.
The rapid growth of the garment industry has provided a large number of formal sector jobs for women. Women now comprise more than 90 per cent of its labour force. This has significantly contributed to Bangladesh’s annual GDP growth rate. The two figures that have dominated Bangladeshi politics for forty years, are both women – Sheikh Hasina and Begum Khaleda Zia.
Challenges remain. Women in Bangladesh often face discrimination and unequal treatment in various aspects of life. For instance, the gender wage gap persists, with women typically earning less than men for similar work. Cultural and social norms continue to limit women’s autonomy and mobility, affecting their access to opportunities and resources.
In rural areas, gender relations are often more traditional and restrictive compared to urban settings. Women in rural communities face greater challenges in accessing education, healthcare and economic opportunities.
In his book The Cruel Birth of Bangladesh, Archer Blood writes that Bengalis are “the Irishmen of the sub-continent.” “A common joke claimed that if three Bengalis were stranded on a desert island, their first action would be to establish four political parties.” It’s said the British shifted their capital from Calcutta to Delhi to be away from the argumentative, politically energetic Bengalis. Certainly, Bengali politics is fiery.
Bangladesh won its liberation from Pakistan in 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman – “father of the nation” and leader of the Awami League – became Prime Minister. A secular, multiparty parliamentary democracy was established.
In January 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman introduced one-party socialist rule. He banned all private newspapers and amended the constitution to increase his power. He was assassinated in 1975, along with most of his family. In 1977, the army chief Ziaur Rahman became president as leader of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). “Zia” was a political rival of Sheikh Mujib, and suspected by many to have been involved in the former’s assassination. Zia reinstated multiparty politics and privatised state newspapers. He himself was assassinated in 1981. Hussain Muhammad Ershad assumed the presidency in 1983. He was forced out by a mass uprising in 1990.
After the 1991 general election, the parliamentary republic was restored. Begum Khaleda Zia of the BNP, widow of General Ziaur Rahman, became Bangladesh’s first female PM. The Awami League returned to power in June 1996, under the helm of Sheikh Hasina, eldest daughter of Sheikh Mujib. These two women – arched rivals – would dominate the political stage until the present day.
Sheikh Hasina was Prime Minister from 2009 until she was hounded from office in 2024 and fled the country. Under her administration, Bangladesh and India enjoyed good relations (while those with Pakistan are more tricky). Sheikh Hasina was credited with deftly managing relations with both the U.S. and China. However, she was also accused of becoming increasingly authoritarian. Bangladesh law and justice was called into question. There was political turmoil during the years in which power bounced back and forth between Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina. However during that time, the country’s institutions, including the media, police and courts, had a degree of independence. Under Hasina’s premiership, Mrs Zia was under house arrest, her party’s activists hounded, the media cowed, and the courts suborned.
Prior to the 2024 election, Amnesty International accused the government of cracking down on freedom of expression and peaceful assembly. They write: “There was a concerning increase in enforced disappearances and lack of accountability for deaths in custody.”
The political stability of Bangladesh was fragile and ultimately Sheikh Hasina’s government was toppled by student protests. Ending his book, Archer Blood, a friend and great admirer of Bangladesh, writes:
“I do not think it presumptuous or patronizing of me to voice my concern over the need to continually strengthen the democratic institutions in Bangladesh, and thereby make for greater political stability and accelerated economic progress. Given its cruel birth and bloody infancy and adolescence, Bangladesh, blessed with talented, industrious, and charming people, certainly merits a tranquil and productive maturity.”Â
In the closing days of the 1971 Liberation War, the West Pakistani forces set about wiping out the country’s intelligentsia. As they faced the prospect of defeat, in one final act of brutality they attempted to hamper the embryonic county’s attempt to stand on its own two feet. The number of martyred intellectuals is thought to be 1,111. This includes 991 academics, 13 journalists, 49 doctors, 42 lawyers and 16 engineers.
Since then Bangladesh has a remarkably strong track record of growth and development. From being one of the poorest nations at its birth in 1971, Bangladesh reached lower-middle income status in 2015. It is on track to graduate from the UN’s Least Developed Countries (LDC) list in 2026. Poverty declined from 11.8 per cent in 2010 to 5 per cent in 2022. In 2021, Bangladesh surpassed both India and Pakistan in terms of per capita income. Human development outcomes have improved. There has been a reduction in infant mortality and stunting, and an increase in literacy rates and access to electricity. Despite these gains, inequality has slightly narrowed in rural areas and widened in urban areas.
Old Dhaka is a warren of narrow alleyways, rusting trishaws and crumbling buildings. But the smart districts of Gulshan and Banini are paved with level and tidy sidewalks. They are also peppered with fancy five-star hotels and smart cafés. Dhaka appears far more developed than Kolkata, capital of West Bengal in India, once the premier city of undivided Bengal.
Agriculture in Bangladesh is the backbone of the country’s economy, employing around 40 per cent of the workforce and contributing roughly 13 per cent to Bangladesh’s GDP. The country’s fertile alluvial soil, nourished by the Padma, Jamuna and Meghna rivers, makes it ideal for farming. Rice is the staple crop. Boro rice, cultivated during the dry season using irrigation, has been particularly significant in achieving food self-sufficiency for Bangladesh.
Apart from rice, jute is another major crop, often referred to as the “golden fibre” due to its importance in the textile industry. (Jute also has a golden hue, which has led to the region’s moniker of “Sonar Bangla” or “Golden Bengal”.) Bangladesh is one of the leading producers of jute, which is used both domestically and exported. Other important crops include wheat, maize, potatoes, sugarcane and various fruits and vegetables like mangoes, bananas and brinjals.
Fishing in Bangladesh is another crucial component of the economy. With an extensive network of rivers, estuaries, and a coastline along the Bay of Bengal, the country boasts one of the richest fisheries in the world.
Aquaculture has seen rapid growth over the past few decades, driven by increased demand and technological advancements. Shrimp farming, particularly in the coastal regions, is a major export-oriented industry. The country is one of the top global producers of farmed shrimp.
“There are many ways for people to die, but somehow dying of starvation is the most unacceptable of all. What a terrible way to die. Death happens so quietly, so inexorably, you don’t even hear it. And all this happens because a person does not have a handful of food to eat at each meal.”
So wrote, Professor Muhammad Yunus, Nobel Prize winner and founder of the Grameen Bank. Yunus, is regarded as the pioneer of microfinance. In the 1970s he lent a modest amount of money to a group of 42 women in a rural village. Yunus recognized that traditional banking systems were inaccessible to the poor, who lacked collateral and credit history. This led to the founding of the Grameen Bank in 1983.
Grameen Bank focuses on providing credit to the poor, particularly women, to enable them to achieve financial independence. The bank’s methodology includes forming small groups where members support and monitor each other’s repayment progress. This peer pressure mechanism ensures high repayment rates, typically over 95 per cent.
Complementing the efforts of Grameen Bank is BRAC (Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee), one of the largest NGOs in the world. BRAC’s microfinance program provides collateral-free loans to the poor, focusing on women who use the funds to start small enterprises. BRAC’s portfolio now includes their own luxury brand Aarong: a social enterprise chain of Bangladeshi department stores.
Grameen Bank and BRAC prove through their microloans, and in their own self-sufficiency, that Bangladeshis can look after themselves. And, ultimately, throw away that aid basket entirely.
In Bangladesh, music is categorized into four main types: classical, light-classical, devotional and popular, with some overlap among them. Classical music encompasses various forms, with dhrupad (Hindustani devotional songs) and khayal (a related, shorter form) being the most notable. Devotional music includes qawwali and kirtana, vocal traditions that are integral to the broader musical heritage of the subcontinent. However, Bangladesh is particularly renowned for its local non-classical popular music, featuring styles such as jari, marfati and baul. These genres are unique to the country and are characterized by their spontaneous nature, setting them apart from classical music.
Bangladesh has also developed its own distinctive dance forms. Some of the most widespread indigenous dances include the dhali, baul, manipuri and snake dances. Each dance form represents different aspects of communal life and is performed during specific occasions.
Across the country, theatrical plays are performed by amateur groups and drama societies in educational settings. Particularly in rural areas, jatra – a form of opera based on local legends – enjoys widespread popularity.
Bangladesh boasts a rich heritage of textiles and weaving, renowned for its intricate craftsmanship and vibrant fabrics. The traditional art of weaving is exemplified by the iconic muslin. Today, the country is celebrated for its beautiful handwoven textiles, including the elaborate Jamdani saris and the colourful Katan silks. The weaving traditions are passed down through generations, reflecting a deep cultural legacy. Bangladesh artisans continue to preserve and innovate, ensuring that their textiles remain a part of the nation’s identity and economy. Contact us to find out more about the rich heritage of textiles in undivided Bengal.
Bengali literature is a rich tapestry of creativity and intellectualism. Its roots are deeply intertwined with the works of Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam. These luminaries set the stage for a vibrant literary tradition that continues to flourish. Today, contemporary voices like Tahmima Anam are making a significant contribution to Bengali literature.
Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. He is a towering figure in Bengali literature. As well as a writer he was a philosopher, artist and social reformer. Tagore’s most popular novel is Gora, set in Bengal at the turn of the century. Here he explores the intersection and conflict between intense nationalism, Hindu orthodoxy, ancient spiritualism and liberal western thought.
Tagore’s popularity in Bangladesh, despite being a Hindu, points to the country’s secular identity. The West Pakistanis provoked outraged in what was then East Pakistan, when they banned the works of Tagore. They saw him as anathema to Pakistan, being a Hindu from West Bengal (and therefore too “Indian”). During the 1971 Liberation War, the Bangladeshi students was to declare Tagore’s “My Golden Bengal” as the Bangladesh national anthem.
Kazi Nazrul Islam, known as the “Rebel Poet,” emerged as a contrasting force to Tagore’s lyrical introspection. Islam’s work, characterized by its fiery patriotism and radical social critique, championed themes of justice, equality and freedom. Nazrul’s poetry and songs, infused with revolutionary fervour, were instrumental in the struggle against colonial rule.
Post-independence, Bangladesh has seen a flourishing of its own literary scene. Among contemporary writers, Tahmima Anam stands out for her evocative storytelling and exploration of socio-political themes. Anam’s novel A Golden Age explores the impact of the Bangladesh Liberation War on its characters. Here she offers a poignant and insightful perspective on the complexities of post-colonial identity and history.
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Cricket was introduced to Bengal during British colonial rule in the late 1800s. However, it took several decades before the sport began to gain popularity among the local population. The game’s grassroots development was marked by the establishment of domestic clubs and tournaments that nurtured local talent and increased interest in the sport.
The turning point for Bangladeshi cricket came with the country’s independence in 1971. The newly formed Bangladesh Cricket Board (BCB) began organizing domestic competitions and sought to build a competitive national team. Despite initial struggles and limited resources, the passion for cricket among Bangladeshi fans continued to grow.
The country’s international cricket journey began in 1999 when the Bangladesh national cricket team, under the captaincy of Khaled Mahmud, made its debut in the Cricket World Cup. This marked a significant milestone for Bangladeshi cricket, although the team did not advance far in the tournament.
The early 2000s were a period of significant development for Bangladeshi cricket. The team’s performance improved, with notable victories over established teams such as Pakistan and India. Bangladesh’s progress continued with the establishment of the Bangladesh Premier League (BPL) in 2012, a professional Twenty20 cricket league. The BPL has played a crucial role in enhancing the profile of cricket in Bangladesh, attracting international players and contributing to the development of local talent.
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